United States Sports Academy - "America's Sports University"

This is an historical, descriptive analysis of sport in Turkiye from the earliest available records to the present day. In order to present a complete picture, the development of sport in Turkiye was divided into three periods: the pre-Islamic, Islamic and post-Islamic-Republican. In the Pre-Islamic period, evidence suggests that the Turkish physical culture is immensely rich, and various forms of games and physical activities were essential and in many respects, a way of life. In an environment where often only the strongest and the fittest were able to survive, warlike forms of physical activities and games, such as archery horse-back-riding, cirit and wrestling were practiced, by men and women alike. In the relaxed moral and social climate of the pre-Islamic period Turkish people were free to practice and express themselves through physical cultural activities.

The nature and the development of sport in Turkiye in the Islamic period was influenced significantly by the Middle Eastern, Arabic and Persian cultural habits and moral codes of religion of Islam. Under the influence of Middle Eastern traditions only men were allowed to practice certain physical activities for leisure purposes. In general, during most of this period sports became the privileges of the rich and famous who controlled politics. The most popular sports and physical cultural activities were cirit, wrestling, archery, and horseback riding. The institutionalization of sports and physical activities was initiated and a few primitive forms of sport clubs were established.

Modern competitive sports were practiced and introduced to Turks, mainly, by the European diplomats during 19th century. From the beginning, development of sport in Turkiye has been problematic and influenced by the national economic, political and social problems. This is, however, typical of economically developing countries.

On the academic level, very little research has been conducted to identify the problems of sport in Turkiye. Very insignificant data related to the mass lifelong sports and fitness or “sport-for all” program has been established. The significant portion of this study will be focusing on whether Islamic religion or the Middle Eastern culture that influenced and prevent:

• Turkish sporting culture to develop further
• Turkish women from participating in the physical cultural activities

Hence, this study is designed to focus on and investigate the physical cultural habits of the Pre-Islamic Turkish women. The researcher is intending to gather and use the data from and using historical materials as well as the field investigations related with the historical background of Turkish people in Central Asia where the Turks were originated from.

Games and various types of physical activities have been a significant part of the lives and avocations of the Turkish people for thousands of years. In ancient times Turkish boys were not granted their public names until they distinguished themselves athletically. In fact, in the pre-Islamic era, certain physical activities were considered expressions of Turkish religion, art or love. In the oldest inscriptions on Turkish monuments found in outer Mongolia and Siberia, circa eighth century B.C., athletic skills, such as horseback riding, archery and wrestling, regardless of gender differences, are described as "first-rate". (Raphaela Lewis, 1978). Predating the Wimbledon Tennis Tournament by approximately 500 years, the 650-year-old annual Kirkpinar Wrestling Tournament in Edirne is but one example of Turkiye's continuous tradition of sports. The successes of Turkish wrestlers in the modern Olympic games until the 1968 Mexico City Games were not a coincidence but extensions of this historical and cultural sport tradition in Turkish culture.

This rich heritage involving sport in Turkiye appears in a number of literary works. For instance, Geoffery Lewis' translation of the Turkish epic Dede Korkut tells a story which gives insight into the physical cultural background of the Turks.
The story concerns a Turkish girl who is a housekeeper for a popular Turkish princess, Chichec. A certain prince is attracted to the princess, but he must contend with her housekeeper's challenges prior to even meeting the princess:

Where are you from young man? From the inner Oghuz said Beyrek (the prince) ... I am he they call Bamsi Beyrek son of Prince Bay Bure. And what is your business here? I am told, replied Beyrek, that Prince Bay Bican has a daughter, and I have come to see her. The lady Chichec is not the sort of person to show herself to you, said she, but I am her serving-woman. Come let us ride out together. We shall shoot our bows and race our horses and wrestle. If you beat me in these three, you will beat her too. To horse! They both mounted and rode out. They spurred their horses and Beyrek's horse passed the girl's. They shot their bows and Beyrek's arrow split the girl's arrow. She said, well youngman, nobody has ever passed my horse or split my arrow. Come now, let us wrestle. At once they dismounted and grappled; they stood as wrestlers do and grasped each other. Beyrek picked the girl up and tried to throw her, and then she picked him up and tried to throw him. Beyrek was astonished and said, if I am beaten I will be humiliated,... He made a supreme effort, grappled with the girl and seized her breast ... and threw her on her back.(Lewis, R., 1987).

As indicated in this story, physical activities were closely linked with the lives of Turkish people. Yet, despite the fact that games and a great range of physical activities have been part of the lives and the pastimes of the Turks for centuries, the sporting legacy of this society has remained basically unwritten. Kurthan Fisek attempted to compensate for this omission in his book, published in Turkish, in 1962, entitled, The Administration of Sport in Turkiye and in the World: Devlet Politikasi ve Toplumsal Yapiyla Iliskileri Acisindan: Spor Yonetimi Dunyada ve Turkiyede.

Fisek's work provides an historical analysis and an overview of the institutionalization and development of sport organizations and their management, both throughout the world and also in Turkiye. The book's main emphasis is on the emergence of sport and its transition from the individual level to the organized and institutional level. It is the first and only academic book on Turkish sport literature. Although much is written about sport in Turkiye, aside from this canonical text most writing emanates from sport newspaper journalists and most of this is journalistic pabulum consisting of games scores, attributions by athletes and coaches relating to individual achievements and team quests for championships.

More significantly, most Turkish sport literature does not acquaint readers with, or encourage awareness of, the larger social issues and consequences of modern and indigenous sport forms, ideological underpinnings, power relations, social, economical, and cultural costs, and so forth. Many pertinent aspects often remain, if mentioned at all, ill defined. Readers are mostly fed a diet of traditional slogans, clichés, and ritualized trivia about sport. An escapist, unsophisticated attitude tends to control sport; substantive studies in sport have been very much neglected, and have only recently attracted the interest of a few researchers.

Such unfortunate neglect diminishes the traditionally rich sport culture of Turkish society. Study of culturally significant roles that Turkish people have attributed to physical cultural activities helps document the nation's values, its spirit, times and mentalities as much as other traditional and cultural enterprises. Turkish academics, as yet, have not adequately examined the significance of various ideological and cultural constructs regarding the body as a functioning organism and its influence on personality or character. Too little scrutiny has focused on the human body's capacity to serve as an "icon," which can communicate present and past customs and social roles.

Unfortunately, too much attention is paid to journalistic evaluations of medal counts in competitive sports, represented in Olympics and World Championships. Until recently, journalists have generally reported only the failures and weaknesses of Turkish sport. Turkish wrestling, which led the world until the 1968 Olympic games, and Turkish soccer, which has rarely been competitive with European teams, are especially criticized. This criticism might be news worthy, but the basic questions of how and why have rarely been discussed. Hence, the traditionally important indigenous games and physical activities such as, cirit (javelin throw), archery and polo and their importance in the lives and historical development of Turkish people have rarely been investigated.

As in nearly all the other developing countries, Turkish sport in its institutionalized, competitive form is not maintaining itself competitively. Despite its strong sport background, when compared to advanced, primarily Western countries, Turkiye is considerably ineffective in the international sport competition arenas, especially in the Olympic games and in the World Championships. In these competitions, high-tech equipment and advanced sciences play a crucial role. As a former Turkish national distance runner, I experienced the reality of this technological handicap personally. In major international track & field races between 1975 and 1982 in which I competed, my Western opponents wore technologically superior running shoes while I ran in flat-soled shoes. I could afford neither the shoes nor the spikes that were attached to them.

Several factors negatively influence the development and competitiveness of sport in developing nations such as Turkiye. A number of authors including William Baker, John Andrews, Donald Calhoun, and Don Anthony have linked the problems of third-world sport, for instance, directly to poverty. In order to understand the system of sport within a given country, it is essential to examine the influences of pre-disposing elements and how they interact with and shape the development of sport. Whatever pattern of development exists, it is important to point out that the system of sport is a product of the society in which it is found. However, it is highly conceivable that certain factors within a given country might have more influence on the system of sport than others at any given time. For instance, although Turkiye has never been colonized, it shares some similar developmental problems with other developing countries.

Finally, on a global scale, problems of sport grow from various socioeconomic, cultural, historical, religious, ecological and political issues that cannot be considered mutually exclusive but must be evaluated as they relate to one another. The sports discussed in Turkiye are those in which Turkish athletes compete internationally, and those that are performed professionally, such as soccer and basketball. Traditionally important indigenous activities, such as cirit, wrestling, polo and archery, however, have rarely been researched or included in journalists' reports. Nor has the subject of the historical development of sport in Turkiye been evaluated. It is the purpose of this study, therefore, to articulate the development of "sport" in Turkish society and to identify the problems of sport that have been affecting the development of sport from the past to the present. It is also the purpose of this study to elaborate on what sport means to Turkiye and to identify the kind of structures that Turkiye formed for the conduct of physical culture and competitive sport. Finally, some of the major problems of sport in contemporary Turkiye will be examined.

Games and indeed several forms of physical activities have been a significant part of the lives and pastimes of Turks for thousands of years. From a mere handful of written materials, we know that the early Turks held various forms of social and cultural gatherings including hunting parties, religious celebrations and victorious festivals. They celebrated these festive occasions with dances, games and physical contests. Hence, available evidence attests that physical participation in sports and sportsmanship were related to the Turkish people's daily work, customs, spiritual beliefs and their expression of art and love. The oldest Turkish inscriptions, found in Outer Mongolia and Siberia, indicate that the Turks of the pre-Islamic era organized festivals for religious and sacrificial purposes where various forms of physical activities, games, dances and contests of skill and strength were demonstrated.

The existence of these activities also can be traced in Turkish miniature paintings, folk songs, and ancient epics. For instance, the commentaries of the famous Turkish epic writer Dede Korkut (A.D. 1000- 1300) clearly referred to certain physical activities and games. In Dede Korkut's description, the athletic skills of Turks, men and women, were described to be "first-rate," especially in horse-riding, archery, cirit [javelin throw], wrestling and polo which are considered Turkish national sports. Unfortunately, however, the study of sport among pre-Islamic and Islamic Turks has rarely attracted the interest of scholars, and such neglect has been unfortunate for the Turkish people and for the international sport community as well.

During the pre-Islamic period the Turks were brave, practical-minded, “patriotic" and physically active nomadic people who, from the beginning of their history, lived in a world in which wars were very common and virtually constant. Because of the natural and social environments, the weak and the old were left to die. As a result, the Turks developed strong, athletic skills for the purpose of survival. And, as in most of the other ancient societies, such physical activities had military and political dimensions. Several historians have indicated that pre-Islamic Turks were "fit, intrepid hunters, expert horsemen and brave warriors" (Lewis, R. 1974). These characteristics, as history shows, made Turks militarily far superior to their settled sedentary neighbors.

Quite naturally, in the pre-Islamic period the warlike forms of physical activities or sports, such as archery, horse-back riding, cirit, and wrestling were more important than were the non-combative sports. Since the sports were necessary elements of survival in this period every Turkish man was considered a "lifetime-soldier," and a significant amount of attention was paid to military skills. One of the primary reasons for such diligence in advocating discipline and promoting physical activities was the Khakans' belief that challenging physical activities and games provided for a boy's physical, ethical, patriotic and moral well-being as stated in the Book of Dede Korkut. Khakans believed that sports instilled in boys courage and loyalty to both their community and national leader. According to Dede Korkut during pre-Islamic period:

boys were routinely taken for rigorous physical and military training… In about one year in training camps the boys were expert warriors in running, slinging, shooting, the bow and throwing [the] javelins ... and riding… After gaining some skill in these activities the boys were allowed to participate in the hunt, enduring the extremes of heat and cold, to make forced marches day after day, to cross streams without wetting their weapons, to eat very little food, perhaps one meal in two days, to support themselves by foraging, and to stalk and kill the wild animals, such as the lion, the leopard, the wild boar, and the antelope ... When not on the hunt the boys continued the regular training in archery, riding, and athletic sports (Geoffrey L. Lewis, Book of Dede Korkut,1978).

Physical activities and games were used in religious and civic commemorations, and were celebrated by people of every class, within various sacrificial rituals. For instance, in the Pre-Islamic Era, the wedding ceremonies, Khanship inaugurations and victories of wars, were the primary entertaining events and were celebrated with games and sports" (Raphaella Lewis, 1971). Dede Korkut noted that as an important part of the heroic, Turkish life-style, "The boys were not granted their public names until they accomplished something heroically (including athletics)." (Lewis, G. 1978, The Book of Dede Korkut, 156).

As with other nomadic societies such as the Tartars, Kazaks, Mongols and Kirghizes, Turks were "...devoted to the cult of horse and were born horsemen" (Evliya, 1978). According to the legendary words, "A Turk is born in a hut and dies on horseback on the prairie." Gurun even stated that, "The domestication of horse was accomplished by Turks" (1981). The Turkish horse had a fundamental impact on the lives of Turkish men who could not imagine life without their horses. In a cave, a Turkish Akinci (soldier) wrote.

Atim olur ise ben de olecgim
eger sag kalirsa bende yasayacagim ...

I will die If my horse dies
I will survive If my horse survives. (Evliya,1987).

During the pre-Islamic period, leisure served as one of the invaluable gifts of God to the Turkish people. If one evaluates the history of Turkish society, one would discover that the Turkish heritage, many-faceted and long-perpetuated in the area of physical activities, has been immensely rich. The 650 year-old annual Kirkpinar Wrestling Festival in Edirne, Turkiye, is but one singularly striking example, the centuries-old Cirit (jerid) festivals in Erzurum, Turkiye another.

Turks were fond of physical activities and their cultural dispositions made physical activities an important feature of their daily life. For the ancient Turks of Central Asia, playing seemed to be the primary impulse for both human beings and Tengeri (sky God). Philosophically, Turks considered the Kainat (the universe) as the "...play arena of divinity, and Mother Earth as the play yard of human beings" (Metin And, 1987). In this context, especially the religious form of dance had a revered and important place.

The relationship between a Turkish shaman and the dance itself is substantiated in a small Turkish manuscript of the fifteenth century, which reveals a symbolic explanation of the origin of dance and music. The anonymous author of this manuscript traces the development of dance from its spiritual birth at the creation of the world. The author explains that, "When God created the Universe, divine energy resounded and from that sound arose the tonalities of music, and this gave birth to several forms of dance" (And, 1987). Furthermore, the author goes on to link the physical movement of the body in dance with the spiritual experience of the dance itself. According to the author, "...the whole cosmos is a dancing mystery" (And,1987).

One thousand years later, a number of scholars started to examine the apparent affinities between this ancient Shamanistic philosophy, and its strong influence on the development of Islamic mysticism, especially Sufi dancing, which recognized dancing as a "...symbol of the cosmos" (And, 1987).
Folk dances and the great folklore tradition of Turks played a prominent role in the development of Turkish physical culture. To this day, Turkish people entertain and enlighten themselves and others through dance, dramatizing the warmth of their folk tales and songs. The most popular dances were often influenced by the Turkish warring techniques. R. Lewis describes these dances as, "...mimed battles of fierce exploits, always intense and energetic, with or without weapons, increasing in speed and excitement and often ending with a leap over the flames fire" (Lewis, R.1971).

Dances also reflected village life and provided one of the most common sources of entertainment. The dancers, men and women alike, were highly skilled performers. They exemplified with their dance movements the particular vibrancy closest to nature that energizing human experience. The dances differed somewhat from region-to region and were accompanied by songs and music.
The most popular dances were often influenced by the movements and actions of the various animals, natural events and fight and defense techniques:

The courtship of cranes, birds sacred to the ancient Turks; an eagle approaching its prey; an encounter between a dignified lion and a ferocious hyena; a clownish camel, danced by two men in the animal's skin. Some of the dances were mimics or imitations of natural features, like flowing water or swaying poplar trees; others mimed daily acts of home and village life, like bread making, weaving or hair washing; these were interspersed with a promenading dance among the audience and always ended with a lively dance of thanksgiving (R. Lewis, 1971).

Major Physical (cultural) Activities During the Pre-Islamic Period

Archery: There is ample evidence that archery was one of the most common sports among the pre-Islamic Turks, because the skill of marksmanship was necessary for surviving. However, apart from its place in survival, archery was also used for entertainment and competitive purposes, practiced and performed by rich and poor alike. The best archers were honored and awarded recognition. According to Evliya, "The Turks like all the other kindred peoples of Central Asia, used the short-bow instead of the long-bow employed by the bowmen of Western Europe" (Evliya Celebi, 1987). The difference is explained by the fact that, "Whereas in the armies of medieval Europe the archers went on foot, among the Turks ... the bow and arrow were part of the equipment of the light cavalry" (Lewis, 203). The bows and arrows were made of "...wood, metal, and bone, depending on the social status of the archer, and they were rigorously tested for technical perfection" (Evliya, 1987). When a young man married, "...he would shoot an arrow and wherever the arrow fell he would set up his marriage-tent" (G. Lewis, 1978). In the pre-Islamic period, "Turkish women had great freedom and did not sit quietly in their tents all the time" (Adivar, 1930). Rather, they were out with their men, "shoulder to shoulder," hunting or fighting. In archery, it seems clear that, women had the capacity to compete with the men. Dede Korkut told us that "Lady Burla, [wife of a Khakan], took an active part in rescuing her son from the infidel; it was she who strikes the enemy standard down with her bow and arrow and sword" (R.Lewis, 1978).

Wrestling was another popular sport or physical activity among the pre-Islamic Turks. From the writings of Dede Korkut we can trace that, during pre-Islamic times, Turkish wrestling was practiced with respect and honored by heroes and heroines. Dede Korkut's account of the pre-nuptial wrestling match between Prince Beyrek and Lady Chichek's housekeeper demonstrates how well-developed and socially integrated wrestling was in ancient Turkiye.

Cirit (Javelin chase)- As dwellers in a nomadic community, the Turks' diet was largely dependent upon hunting. Cirit was a specifically designed war and hunting weapon that Turks used especially in the hunting of large animals. In war, the Cirit was used for close fighting. According to Evliya, Cirit was "...made of either wood or metal; throwing a cirit required a certain kind of skill and strong arm power" (1987). Cirit was also a widely practiced activity among the pre-Islamic Turks. By its nature, the game of cirit was one of the most dangerous activities that the Turkish people practiced, since there was very little protection available for the players to prevent accidents and injuries. During a game it was not uncommon for a player to be killed on the spot.

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