United States Sports Academy - "America's Sports University"

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine whether a significant difference existed between the perception of the National Collegiate Athletic Association male and female athletes regarding various types of abusive behaviors by their coaches. This research examined whether or not athletic departments in the United States of America should develop policies and procedures to educate all persons involved in the athletic setting, as well as the prosecution of coaches who sexually harass or emotionally abuse student-athletes.

A survey instrument, adapted from three previous studies, was employed to rank 20 perceived abusive behaviors in Division II tennis programs. The survey was developed from the review of literature, a panel of experts, and a pilot study using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient to identify validity and internal consistency reliability. The survey was administered on-site to 140 student-athletes participating in the Southern Region Tennis Tournament. All 140 student-athletes returned the completed surveys to the researcher. A total of 134 surveys were answered correctly and were utilized in this research study. (95.7% response rate).

The statistical analysis for this research study included descriptive statistics to analyze the rankings of the severity of behaviors and a factor analysis to determine which behaviors led to abusive situations. The method of factor extraction used was the principal component method with the Varimax rotation. Frequencies, percentages, means, mean rankings, and standard deviations were the descriptive statistics utilized. The factor analysis investigated areas within the perceived abusive behaviors for identification within clusters demonstrating a good degree of correlation.

Introduction

The question of sexual harassment in university settings has received very little attention over the years. This research study was designed to provide insight into the issue of sexual harassment and emotional abuse by examining the perceptions of the student-athletes in the USA university athletic programs. This study also attempted to establish an understanding of the meanings that student-athletes assign to sexually harassing behaviors exhibited by their coaches.

Areas of concern regarding the continual problem of emotional abuse and sexual harassment in the collegiate setting were examined. The study covered a historical review of the first cases of sexual harassment in sport, the definitions that were subsequently adopted, the unique relationship between coaches and athletes, and the legal implications involved in cases filed in court. Finally, a discussion was included concerning why the conduct of coaches within an ethical framework is necessary for protecting the student-athletes.

Athletic departments, although part of the community mainstream, have developed their own relationships; therefore, they function independently from the educational community. This fact does not diminish the athletic departments’ moral and legal obligation to provide an environment free from sexual harassment for all student-athletes, nor does it deny the student-athletes and employees the right to access community resources to resolve sexual harassment issues. The study was intended to contribute to the current literature of sexual harassment in revealing how student-athletes perceive certain ambiguous behaviors. The research also provided an insight from the athlete’s point of view on the atmosphere within university collegiate programs. Information generated from this study will also benefit the organizing body of university athletics in an attempt to make the athletic experience a very positive one. The application of these research findings will demonstrate a need for greater efforts to develop policies and procedures for every athletic department in the USA.

Methods

Subjects

The subjects selected were 140 male and female tennis players. Each team had approximately 10 tennis players per team with 14 teams participating from the Southern Region. All tennis players were given the opportunity to participate or not to participate in the study. The student-athletes were randomly selected for their participation in this survey. All athletes were selected from Division II tennis programs participating in their regional tournament in the Southern Region. Participation in the survey was strictly voluntary.

Instrument

The data collected for the study was gathered via face-to-face on-site surveys. The survey was adapted from three previous existing surveys, but was adapted specifically for male and female student-athletes. A description of the different behaviors that were evaluated using a five-point Likert scale ranging from extremely appropriate =5 to extremely inappropriate =1. The study was concerned with the subjects, the instrument, the procedures, and the design and statistical analysis.

The survey was submitted to the panel of experts for the purpose of testing the adequacy of the instrument, reviewing the questions, and establishing validity of the instrument. The procedure for reliability testing included Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. Based on Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient, the pilot study respondents’ answers to the competency and harassment items were validated by confirming the internal consistency and reliability of the scores reported. The degrees of good reliability were interpreted as a correlation coefficient utilizing Cronbach’s scale.

Statistical Analysis

The plans for the research design used in determining perceived coaching behaviors by student-athletes included (1) order of the ranking of coaching behaviors, (2) results of the factor analysis used to determine the severity of perceived coaching behavior, and (3) investigation of the review of literature.

Descriptive research was used to analyze the rankings of the perceived coaching behaviors. Frequencies, percentages, means, mean rankings, and standard deviation were utilized.

A factor analysis was used to determine the severity of perceived coaching behaviors. Factor analysis investigated the integration of two or more independent variables on a single dependent variable. Areas within the coaching behavior selection were identified for inclusion within clusters demonstrating a high degree of correlation. Factor analysis identified underlying variables or factors explaining the pattern of correlations within a set of observed variables. Factor analysis was also used in data reduction to help identify a small number of factors explaining the variance observed in a larger number of manifest variables. Examination of the scree plots supported the extraction of four factors with an eigenvalue greater than 1.0. Cluster titles were identified and assigned to each of the factors. The method of factor extraction used was the Principal Component method. The method of rotation employed was the Varimax rotation.

Results

Demographic information obtained from the respondents included gender, age, scholarship status, race, academic classification, current playing position on the team and gender of the head coach. This information was deemed necessary for this study in order to determine how demographic classifications affected the perceptions of the severity of coaching behaviors. This paper will only present one of the demographic variables, gender.

Mean Range of Perceived Coaching Behavior - Gender

Tables Two and Three indicate the pattern of total mean ranges of perceived coaching behavior for gender. The mean values were obtained for each of the 20 coaching behavior items. For male tennis players, the mean values ranged from an inappropriate high of 4.77 (item 20: sexual favors could result in increased scholarship money or rank on the team) to an appropriate low of 2.53 (item 6: closed door meeting with a player). For female tennis players, the mean values ranged from an inappropriate high of 4.85 (item 20: sexual favors could result in increased scholarship money or rank on the team) to an appropriate low of 2.36 (item 13: congratulatory hug after the completion of a match).

Table Mean Range, Frequency and Behavior Items for Gender

TABLE 2	MALE RESPONDENTS
Mean Range	Behavior Items	Frequency
>4.500	9, 11, 17, 19, 20	5
4.000 – 4.499	16, 18	2
3.500 – 3.999	1, 2, 7, 12, 15	5
3.000 – 3.499	4, 5, 8, 10, 14	5
2.500 – 2.999	3, 6, 13	3
2.000 – 2.499	N/A
<1.999	N/A
Total		20

 

TABLE 3	FEMALE RESPONDENTS
Mean Range	Behavior Items	Frequency
>4.500	9, 11, 17, 19, 20	5
4.000 – 4.499	1, 2, 15, 16, 18	5
3.500 – 3.999	4, 5, 12, 14	4
3.000 – 3.499	3, 7, 8	3
2.500 – 2.999	6, 10	2
2.000 – 2.499	13	1
<1.999	N/A
Total		20

The top five perceived coaching behaviors considered most inappropriate for males were, in rank order, (1) implied sexual favors could result in increased scholarship money or rank on the team (item 20), (2) coach’s use pet names (item 9), (3) coach solicits a player in a personal manner (item 17), (4) coach initiates contact with a player by allowing him or her to sit on lap (item 19), and (5) coach puts hands on player’s buttocks while giving tennis instruction (item 11).

The top five perceived coaching behaviors considered most appropriate for males were, in rank order, (1) coach closes the door when meeting with a player (item 6), (2) coach invites a player out to dinner in a public setting (item 3), (3) coach gives congratulatory hug to a player after the match (item 13), (4) coach compliments player on appearance (item 8), and (5) coach touches player’s arm when giving tennis instruction (item 10).

Factor analysis was employed to determine the perceived abusive behaviors and specific factors necessary for the implementation of policies and procedures in this investigation. The extraction method using Principal axis factoring and Varimax rotation with Kaiser normalization were conducted to analyze the interrelationships and pattern correlations between the observed variables and perceived behavior items. This resulted in a four-factor solution.

Examination of the scree plots supported the extraction of four of these factors with an eigenvalue greater than 1.0. The rotated four-factor solution accounted for 66.05% variance of the perceptions of ambiguous behaviors for the athlete sample. Cluster titles were identified and assigned to each of the factors. These titles were established as an indication of the nature of the severity of perceived coaching behavior items within each cluster. To determine factor reliability, the internal consistency of each factor was assessed by computing Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. All four subscales indicated a good level of internal consistency with coefficients greater than .85.

Categorization of Behaviors - Gender

Four categories with 66% of the total variation were identified in the factor analysis for the perceived coaching behaviors. Cluster titles were assigned to each of the four group items:

Category 1 Item 4 Item 1 Item 2 Item 5 Item 3	Invitations Invitation to coach’s house for tactical discussion Invitation to lunch Invitation for a drink after training session Invitation for coffee in a non-public setting Invitation to dinner in a public setting	31%
Category 2 Item 13 Item 10 Item 7 Item 14 Item 11	Invasion of personal space Coach gives congratulatory hug Coach touches arm while giving tennis instruction Coach sits or stands close when talking with a player Coach gives a playful shoulder massage or backrub Coach places hands on player’s buttocks	16%
Category 3 Item 8 Item 9 Item 17	Personal compliments Coach compliments appearance Coach uses pet names Coach solicits in a personal manner	10%
Category 4 Item 18 Item 6 Item 19 Item 20	Inappropriate contact Coach instigates frequent nightly telephone contact Coach closes the door when meeting with an athlete Coach initiates contact of player sitting on his/her lap Coach implies that sexual favors could result in promotion	9%
Miscellaneous: Item 16 Item 15 Item 12	Did not load Coach attempts to rape a player Coach attempts aggressive physical contact Coach uses profanity when giving instruction

Conclusion

The findings reveal that athletes rated the 20 behaviors as appropriate are contrary to the expectations of the researcher and to previous research conducted. A number of possible explanations regarding why athletes in this study perceived behaviors as appropriate could be as follows: (1) the power that the coach holds over the athlete in making decisions for the athletes, (2) a naiveté amongst the athletes related to possible innocence and lack of awareness of the potential for abuse in the coach-athlete relationship, and (3) the coaching relationship between athlete and coach. Coaches may be unaware of the power they have over their athletes, with implications of language, jokes, and their sheer physical presence. The possibility is that athletes may also be unaware of the power and presence that their coach holds in their lives.

Former research studies have revealed that there is an alarming rise of sexual harassment and emotional abuse in universities and colleges. All the previous and current research studies suggest that the gender of the perpetrator, gender of the target, severity and frequency of inappropriate behaviors, judgment of the involvement of the victim, status of the supervisory role, personal experience, and intentions of the perpetrator all contribute to the different perceptions held by student-athletes.

Most athletic institutions across the country do not offer any educational programs that educate either coaches or students on this problem. Therefore, it is no surprise that a large proportion of the athletes did not identify the potential implications of a coach inviting a player for drinks, attempting to pursue an aggressive physical contact, and an attempt to rape a player as extremely inappropriate behaviors that could emotionally affect the well-being of the athlete. The results, therefore, suggest that sexual harassment and emotional abuse information and education are readily needed to prevent misunderstanding and conflict between coaches and athletes.

Sexual harassment in universities deserves our attention, and the need for athletic departments to implement policies and procedures to prevent sexual harassment and emotional abuse are essential for the protection of the student-athlete. With more and more research in the area of sexual harassment in the sport domain, there is hope that the development and implementation of sexual harassment policies specifically for athletic departments will be instituted nationwide. There must be clear policies on how to handle sexual harassment cases, and these policies must be monitored and evaluated by individuals who are outside of the university setting.

In conclusion, sexual harassment has debilitating consequences for its victims, undermining the mission of sports, which is to improve the physical, mental, and emotional well-being of all participants. If institutions continue to bury their heads in the sand and not acknowledge that such behavior is occurring, universities and colleges will be in jeopardy of more and more lawsuits, which will be extremely costly and damaging to their reputation.

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