A Study of Gambling Activity in a NCAA Division II Institution

ISSN: 1543-9518

Submitted by: Frank Butts

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine both the overall and the sports specific gambling activity among athletes and non-athletes enrolled in a Southern, regional National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division II university. The findings were contrasted to the results of a 2003 NCAA Sports Wagering study. The instrument utilized in this particular study was an adaptation of the survey used in the NCAA 2003 study. Gambling by athletes at NCAA member schools is a growing concern, and there are indicators that gambling by college athletes may be more prevalent today than described in the 2003 study as gambling activity among student-athletes, male and female, in Division II seems to have increased dramatically from 2003 to 2006.

Specific to this study, respondents from a Southern, regional, NCAA Division II college, the University of West Georgia, indicated a much higher rate of gambling as contrasted to the 2003 overall NCAA II findings. Interestingly, the prevalence of gambling activity among the subjects of this study seemed to be most prevalent within two sports: women’s basketball and men’s football. The reported activity among the other nine sports was practically non-existent. The increase in gambling activity reported by the 2006 student-athletes as contrasted to the 2003 student-athletes might reflect a change in recreational lifestyle, ease of access to gambling via the intranet, a rapidly changing set of sports morays, or an aberration associated with one particular NCAA II college.

Introduction

Gambling of all types is on the rise in the United States. In 1999, thirty-seven states and the District of Columbia had lotteries, as compared to thirteen in 1976 (Claussen & Miller, 2001). In this same year, Nevada hosted 142 bookmaking sites (National Gambling Impact Study Commission, 1999b). Casino growth has paralleled this expansion of gambling. The approval rate for using gambling as a way to raise state funds for government programs and/or education has also dramatically increased. A Gallup Poll conducted in 1989 indicated that 55% of Americans approved of this type of fund raising. Ten years later, Goldin (1999) noted that the approval rate grew to 92% of Americans.
Early acceptance of widespread gambling was evident in The United States as early as the late 1980s through the passing of the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act (IGRA). This law gave American Indian Tribes the right to host gambling activities on reservation grounds as long as the activities were not against state or national law (Goldin, 1999). Since the passing of this regulatory act, revenue from gambling has grown from $212 million in 1988 to $6.7 billion in 1999 (NGISC, 1999b). This growth has continued despite disasters such as “911” and Hurricane Katrina. According to the Mississippi Gaming Commission (2006), three Gulf Coast casinos alone were able to generate net revenue of sixty-four million dollars in January of this year, even after the effects of Hurricane Katrina.

Both private business and governments associated with gambling have responded to the above phenomena by creating additional opportunities for involvement with gambling. These include allowing water-based casinos to relocate to land-based operations; a growth in state lotteries, animal racing, charitable gambling, video poker machines, sports betting, and internet gambling (Claussen & Miller, 2001).

Improved technology has created an opportunity for the formation of internet gambling sites, which lures today’s internet savvy students. Lowry (1999) reported there were approximately 280 online sites that offer internet gambling. These online sites generated 1.5 billion dollars revenue in the year 2000 (Woodruff & Gregory, 2005). Revenue from this type of gambling will continue to increase as the internet becomes more accessible. Internet opportunities, along with an increased public acceptance of gambling, make activities such as betting on an athletic competition more appealing and much easier (Doocey, 1996; Udovicic, 1998). In fact, sports gambling has grown to a greater than $100 billion industry (Udovivic, 1998). This is partially due to the fact that more information (via the Internet) is available describing sports teams, which allows people to feel more informed in predicting outcomes.

According to a meta-analysis of gambling habits among university students by Labrie, Shaffer, LaPlante, & Wechsler (2003), it was reported that 41.9% of students indicated involvement in gambling activity within the past year, while 23% indicated participation in the activity within the past week. Additionally, 5.6% of these students met the criteria for pathological gambling as compared to the rates of 0.2 to 2.1% for the general population (Labrie, Shaffer, LaPlante, & Wechsler, 2003). This was the result of a study of college students which utilized findings from the South Oaks Gambling Screen study (Lesieur & Blume, 1987).

Another study by Engwall, Hunter, & Steinberg (2004) reported similar findings to the Labrie, et al (2003) meta-analysis. They found that 42% of college students reported at least one gambling episode in the past year and 3% of the respondents gambled at least once a week. Labrie, et al (2003) found that playing the lottery was the most common gambling activity reported among college students. He found that gambling activity among college men was significantly greater than college women. Engwall, et.al (2003) also noted that gambling appears to be related to behavioral characteristics in college students such as (a) increased television viewing, (b) computer use for non-academic reasons, (c) spending less time studying, (d) earning lower grades, (e) participation in intercollegiate athletics, and (f) binge drinking.

Ironically, alcohol use is a strong predictor of college student gambling behavior, regardless of gender. Labrie, et al (2003) reported that college students who had used alcohol within the past year were 2.4 times more likely to engage in gambling behavior than those who had abstained from alcohol. It also appears that the variables associated with gambling vary by gender. For example, among Caucasians, being a male was a strong predictor of gambling, as contrasted to being a female (Labrie, et.al, 2003). Labrie, et al (2003) also noted that college female gamblers were more likely to work for wages, be single, and view community service as less than very important. Unlike the female gamblers, males who gambled were more likely to view sports and physical activity as very important.

College students who participated in sports gambling in particular were more likely to gamble on golf than any other activity according to the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) study (Petr, Paskus, & Dunkle, 2003). Perhaps this is due to the extensive history of gambling in golf that involves players betting with large sums of money. This has been documented as far back as 1870 (LeCompte, 2005). The United States Golf Association (USGA) does not object to gambling that does not interfere with the game (LeCompte, 2005). This is in contrast to the NCAA policy that prohibits any type of gambling in the context of athletics.

In a statement to the Senate Commerce Committee, Senator John McCain noted that college gambling was “reaching epidemic proportions” (McCain, 2003). Senator McCain made this statement after results from the National Gambling Impact Study Commission Report (NGISC) indicated that college students spend more money on gambling activities than alcohol (NGISC, 1999b).

Gambling on sports by amateur athletes has been added to the list of behavioral issues addressed by the NCAA. Even though the NCAA prohibits sports gambling in general, the primary concern has been with participating athletes betting on games and then shaving points to influence outcomes. Point shaving has been defined as the deliberate refusal of an athlete to score in exchange for monetary resources from a book master or “bookie” (Petr, et al, 2003).

The NCAA utilized the Petr et al. (2003) study to examine the gambling behaviors of student athletes from all NCAA divisions. The majority of the activities in which these athletes admitted gambling activity included playing cards or board games for money, betting on games of personal skill, purchasing lottery tickets, using slot or electronic poker machines, trading sports cards, and entering football pools (Petr, et al., 2003).

The overall prevalence of gambling among NCAA student athletes was reported to be 35 % among males and 10 % among females. Division III athletes were found to have the greatest prevalence of gambling (Petr, et al, 2003). In Division I, point shaving was more prevalent among football players than male basketball players. Just over 1% of football players reported that they had played poorly in a game in exchange for money, compared to ½% of the basketball players (Petr, et al., 2003). Golf had the highest percentage of participants reporting gambling behavior: 8.4 % for females and 48.6% for males.

There appears to be an inverse relationship between knowledge of the NCAA policy on gambling and the frequency of the behavior. Athletes in Division III had the highest overall rates of gambling and the least reported knowledge concerning the NCAA policy on gambling. Only 43.5% of male athletes in Division III were aware that the NCAA had rules and regulations that discourage gambling (Petr, et al., 2003), despite the release of the NCAA publication, Don’t Bet on It. This suggests that this NCAA publication and the information contained in it may not be disbursed by all member schools to athletes.

The personality characteristics that produce excellent athletes are also present in pathological gamblers. These characteristics include feeling in control of situations and outcomes, a large ego, and optimism (Naughton, 1998). Just as a great athlete is confident in his or her ability to win competitions, a pathological gambler is confident in accumulating wealth from gambling. This link alone may account for some of the gambling activity.

There will always be athletes who engage in gambling behaviors despite being forewarned of the repercussions. The motives have been widely documented; however, the top stated reasons for gambling by student-athletes have been reported as “for fun,” “to win money,” and “for excitement” (Petr, et al., 2003).

Prior to the NCAA sports wagering study conducted in 2003, no data had been collected specifically looking at the gambling habits of non-Division I NCAA athletes (Copeland, 2004). The majority of the research on gambling among athletes has focused on the activities of NCAA Division I men’s football and basketball players. However, the results of the 2003 NCAA sports wagering study indicate that additional research on gambling should be expanded to include athletes in classifications such as Division II and III. The NCAA study found that 66.5% of Division II athletes, as compared to 63.4% in Division I, had participated in some form of gambling within the past year (Petr, et al., 2003). Furthermore, 33.5% of Division II athletes, as compared to 28.8% of athletes in Division I, admitted participation in sports wagering within the past year. This is significant, as sports wagering is prohibited by the NCAA, and results in an athlete losing one year of eligibility to compete in his or her respective sport if convicted.

While the NCAA (2003) study noted the prevalence of gambling among Division II athletes, it did not provide data on the specific gambling preferences of this group nor did it segment the various types of Division II colleges, such as small-private, large state, or other strata. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to reexamine the NCAA findings and collect additional, more current information on the gambling preferences of NCAA Division II student athletes and non-athletes, with a focus on a NCAA II regional, rural, state university.

Methods

The subjects selected were all enrolled at the University of West Georgia (UWG), a NCAA Division II college, during the spring of 2006. This particular university is a regional school within the University of Georgia System. The enrollment at the time of the study was approximately 10,800 students. The subject pool was divided into two groups: non-athlete students and student-athletes. From each of these two groups a random sample was identified using alphabetical ordering and then a selection of a predetermined number of participants based on the total subject pool. The number of athletes selected was 141 and a 63.1% response rate was obtained thus yielding fifty-one female and thirty-eight male respondents. The number of non-athlete students in the initial random sample pool was 220. Eighty-nine or 40.5% of the subjects agreed to participate, thus yielding a response pool of fifty-three females and thirty-six males. The predetermined numbers for the initial subject pools were obtained using the recommendations of Magnani (1997).

Both student-athletes and non-athlete students completed the survey instrument in the presence of research assistants. Complete anonymity was guaranteed and names were not associated with the collected questionnaires. Permission to conduct the study was granted by the IRB at the University of West Georgia.

The number of NCAA Division II student athletes participating in the NCAA Wagering Study conducted by Petr el al (2003) was 1798 females and 2957 males. This data were frequently used for comparison with the findings of this particular study.

The instrument utilized in this particular study was an adaptation of the survey used in the NCAA Wagering Study in 2003. The instrument took between ten and fifteen minutes for the subjects to complete. The survey instrument identified the prevalence and extent of gambling behaviors among students within the most recent twelve-month period. Survey items not completed were labeled by the researchers as “not stated”. The definition of “not stated” therefore implied the refusal of the respondent to answer a particular question. In addition to examining habits, the instrument also identified problem and pathological gambling behaviors using the South Oaks ten item screening tool as a guide (SOGS).

Results

The findings of this study were tabulated consistent with the format of the 2003 NCAA wagering study. This allowed for comparisons between the various categories of respondents. The results were quantified and examined for observed differences among NCAA II female and male athletes, UWG female and male athletes, and UWG female and male non-athletes.

As seen in Table 1, among both athletes and non-athletes and females and males alike, the UWG population in this particular study reported a higher rate of total gambling activity than the findings in the NCAA II (2003) female and male athlete population. The UWG population was 18% to 31% more active in gambling activity in general. However the specific rate of gambling on college sports at UWG was less than the NCAA II rate for both females and males.

Table 1

Involvement with Gambling in the Past 12 Months

	Any Gambling	On Collegiate Sport
	Female	Male	Not Stated	Female	Male	Not Stated
NCAA Division II athletes^c	51.0%	66.5%	15.5%	5.8%	21.0%	73.2%
UWG student-athletes^b	70.6%	97.3%	NA	2.0%	7.9%	NA
UWG students (non-athletes)^a	67.9%	86.1%	NA	1.9%	8.3%	NA

Note. All NCAA statistics are from Petr et al (2003).
^an= 51 females, 38 males.
^bn= 53 females, 36 males.
^cn= 1798 females, 2957 males.

The findings presented in Table 2 reinforced the sports gambling prevalence of UWG students and student-athletes. This was particularly true when wagering on all sports, not just college sports, was considered. Both UWG females and males were twice as likely to gamble on sports as contrasted to the total population of NCAA II female and male athletes.

Table 2

Students and Athletes Who Wagered on any Sport by Gender

Category	Female	Male	Not Stated
NCAA Division II athletes^c	10.6%	33.5%	55.9%
UWG student-athletes^a	21.6%	60.5%	NA
UWG students^b	15.1%	61.1%	NA

Note. All NCAA statistics are from Petr et al. (2003).
^a n= 51 females, 38 males.
^b n= 53 females, 36 males.
^c n= 1798 females, 2957 males.

The findings in Table 3 depicted a wide array of gambling activity by UWG students and student-athletes. This diversity of gambling activity was evident in the overall NCAA II athlete population as well. Specifically, non-athlete, female UWG students reported a higher degree of gambling using card games, whereas male non-athlete UWG students were more likely to utilize casino table games for gambling purposes. Both female and male UWG non-athletes were more likely to be involved with craps and dice games than athletes. The prevalence of gambling activity involving personal skill was higher among both UWG male and female athletes as contrasted to non-athletes. Male UWG athletes were twice as likely as any group in this study to utilize internet gambling options. Utilizing on campus bookies was three times higher among UWG male athletes as contrasted to all other groups. The use of off-campus bookies was similar among all groups, except UWG non-athlete males, who were twice as likely to use an off-campus bookie compared to the other groups. Female and male UWG students, athletes, and non-athletes were twice as likely to purchase lottery tickets compared to the total NCAA Division II group.

Table 3

Students Engaging in Specific Gambling Activities in the Past 12 Months

	Males	Females
Non- Gambling Pursuit	NCAA Division II^c	UWG Student Athletes^a	UWG Non Athletes^b	NCAA Division II^c	UWG Athletes^a	UWG Student Athletes^b
Played card or board games for money	42.5%	81.6%	66.7%	19.2%	27.5%	34%
Table games at casino	19.1%	34.2%	11.1%	9.3%	2.0%	5.7%
Games of personal skill	35.1%	73.7%	61.1%	16.3%	27.5%	18.9%
Stock market/commodities	9.1%	15.8%	16.7%	3.6%	5.9%	1.9%
Commercial bingo	6.9%	7.9%	8.3%	6.7%	9.8%	20.8%
Played dice/craps	12.2%	36.8%	27.8%	3.8%	13.7%	7.5%
Internet gambling	7.2%	23.7%	13.9%	2.0%	7.8%	5.7%
Sports cards, football pools, or parlays	19.0%	52.6%	52.8%	7.0%	13.7%	9.4%
Bet on horse or dog races	8.9%	26.3%	13.9%	4.8%	9.8%	7.5%
Bet on intercollegiate games with campus bookie	2.4%	7.9%	8.3%	0.4%	0.0%	0.0%
Bet on intercollegiate games with off-campus bookie	4.6%	2.6%	8.3%	0.9%	2.0%	1.9%
Lottery tickets	37.0%	76.3%	72.2%	31.9%	52.9%	62.3%
Slot or electronic poker machines	20.0%	34.2%	33.3%	14.6%	15.7%	26.4%
Some other type of gambling	22.8%	44.7%	38.9%	8.0%	19.6%	15.9%

Note. All NCAA statistics are from Petr et al. (2003).
^a n= 51 females, 38 males.
^b n= 53 females, 36 males.
^c n= 1798 females, 2957 males.

As seen in Table 4, both UWG female and male athletes were nearly twice as likely to say they had no knowledge of the NCAA gambling rules as contrasted to the overall NCAA II population responses.

Table 4
Athletes Knowledgeable of the NCAA Rules Concerning Gambling:

	Males	Females
Know Rules	NCAA Division II^b	UWG Athletes^a	NCAA Division II^b	UWG Athletes^a
Yes	50.1%	15.7%	39.1%	9.8%
No	19.6%	26.3%	20.4%	43.1%
Not sure	30.3%	57.9%	40.6%	35.3%

Note. All NCAA statistics are from Petr et al. (2003).
^a n= 51 females, 38 males.
^b n= 1798 females, 2957 males.

As seen in Table 5, both female and male athletes at UWG expressed a similar frequency of problem or pathological characteristics as compared to those in the NCAA II 2003 study. However, there were a disproportionately high percentage of non-athlete UWG students whose responses were consistent with potential problem gambling issues. This group was four times as likely to indicate potential problem gambling characteristics.

Table 5

Students Who Indicate a Problem or Pathology Concerning Gambling:

	Males	Females
Screening Outcome	NCAA Division II^c	UWG Students^b	UWG Athletes^a	NCAA Division II^c	UWG Students^b	UWG Athletes^a
Non-Gambler	35.3%	27.8%	26.3%	60.1%	41.5%	47.1%
No problem	48.3%	30.6%	50%	35.7%	45.3%	37.3%
Potential problem gambler	11.3%	41.7%	10.5%	3.8%	9.4%	13.7%
Pathological gambler	1.7%	2.8%	7.9%	0.1%	0.0%	0.0%
Not stated (but still gambles)	info not provided	0.0%	5.3%	info not provided	0.0%	5.9%

Note. All NCAA statistics are from Petr et al. (2003).
^a n= 51 females, 38 males.
^b n= 53 females, 36 males.
^c n= 1798 females, 2957 males.

The authors found that sports gambling athletes from only two sports among the UWG population displayed significant gambling activity of any type during the recent twelve months. The sports were women’s basketball and men’s football. The reported prevalence of gambling activity among the other nine sports at UWG was not significant.
Discussion

As previously noted, gambling by athletes at NCAA member schools is a growing concern. The NCAA obviously senses a problem as evidenced by their focus on the issue. There are indicators that the problem may be larger than described in the 2003 NCAA study. For example, the fact that 73.2% of NCAA II athletes in the 2003 NCAA Wagering Study refused to make a statement about their gambling activity a matter of concern. This could indicate a fear of being forthright due to concerns about retribution and conviction.

Also, this study found a much higher rate of gambling among UWG students, as contrasted to the 2003 overall NCAA Division II population. This could be more than an aberration associated with one NCAA Division II college. It could reflect a rapid growth of gambling among college students which could be related to the widening social acceptance of gambling, the expansion of internet gambling, or perhaps other issues. However, there is always the possibility that the limitation due to the smaller number of respondents among the 2006 UWG population groups, as contrasted to the 2003 NCAA Division II group, could have skewed the data.

At this point in time however, the UWG population of both athletes and non-athletes appeared to have a comparatively high rate of gambling involvement. If one were to assume the rate of involvement among NCAA Division II athletes has remained constant over the three years since the NCAA study, then one would have to question whether a regional, rural, relatively large, state university might have a consistently higher rate of gambling involvement. This issue alone might merit future study.

Interestingly, the prevalence of gambling activity among UWG athletes in particular seemed to reside exclusively within two sports, women’s basketball, and men’s football. The reported activity among the other nine sports at UWG was practically non-existent. This finding may be inferable or it might have been the result of a reluctance of athletes from other sports to express activity among teams. This question also merits further investigation.

Several other questions associated with gambling among college athletes merits future study. Is there a link between expressed gambling activity among student-athletes and graduation rates? Are there athletes from specific sports that have higher gambling activity rates as indicated in this particular study? Do non-athlete students actually have a higher gambling activity rate than the student-athlete population?

Obviously, if gambling becomes an interference with fair sports competition, the development of the student-athlete, graduation rates, or the integrity of any aspect of higher education, it deserves attention. At this point in time, it appears that this determination is still in question and thus deserves additional research. Additionally, other universities might consider replicating thus study in order to provide a basis for comparison and analysis.

References

Copeland, J. (2004). Sports wagering survey focuses attention on the high
rates of misbehavior in Divisions II, III. The NCAA News. December 6, 2004,
Retrieved April 6, 2006 from http://www.ncaa.org/wps/portal/newsdetail

Claussen, C.L. & Miller, L.K. (2001). The gambling industry and sports gambling: A
stake in the game? Journal of Sport Management, 15, 350-363.

Doocey, P. (1996). The case for legal sports betting. International Gaming &
Wagering Business, 17 (4), 1, 40-41.

Engwall, D., Hunter, R., & Steinberg, M. (2004). Gambling and other risk behaviors
on university campuses. Journal of American College Health, 52(6), 245-255.

Goldin, N.S. (1999). Casting a new light on tribal casino gaming: Why Congress
should curtail the scope of high stakes Indian gaming. Cornell Law Review (Note), 84, 798-849.

LaBrie, R., Shaffer, H., LaPlante, D., & Wechsler, H. (2003). Correlates of College
Student Gambling in the United States. Journal of American College Health, (52), 53-62.

LeCompte, T. (2005). Gambling and golf a match made in heaven.
American Heritage, 56 (4), 64.

Lesieur, H. & Blume, S. (1987). The South Oaks gambling screen (SOGS): a new
instrument for the identification of pathological gamblers. American Journal of
Psychiatry, 144(9): 1184-1188.

Magnani, R. (1997). Sampling guide. IMPACT Food Security and Nutrition
Monitoring Project. Arlington, Va.

McCain, J. (2003). Statement of Senator John McCain, Commerce Committee
Hearing on Sports Gambling and S.2267, the Amateur Sports Integrity Act.

National Gambling Impact Study Commission. (1999b). Final Report. Washington, DC:
Author.

The Mississippi Gaming Commission. (2006). Monthly Reports. Jackson, MS:
Retrieved from
www.mstc.state.ms.us/taxareas/misc/gaming/stats/GamingGrossRevenues.pdf April 4, 2006.

Naughton, J. (1998). Why athletes are vulnerable to gambling. The Chronicle
of Higher Education, 44 (32), A51.

Petr, T., Paskus, T.S. & Dunkle, J.B. (2003). NCAA national study on collegiate
sports wagering and associated behaviors. National Collegiate Athletic Association, 1-62.

Udovicic, A. (1998). Sports and gambling a good mix? I wouldn’t bet on it.
Marquette Sports Law Journal, 8 (2), 401-427.

Woodruff, C. & Gregory, S. (2005). Profile of Internet Gamblers: Betting on the
Future. UNLV Gaming Research and Review Journal. 9 (1), 1-14.

Bookmark / Submit this article with: