United States Sports Academy - "America's Sports University"

Abstract

The area of Olympic Volunteerism is a relatively new one for researchers and the Olympic Movement. It was not until the 1980 Lake Placid Olympics that that the “Olympic Volunteer Movement” commenced. To date, the Olympic Movement has not established a policy on volunteerism and multiculturalism. Moreover, none of the main IOC Commissions has a primary mandate for volunteerism and multiculturalism, while the responsibility for the recruiting and training of volunteers falls within the hands of the National Olympic Committees. This paper examines the linkage between volunteerism and multiculturalism for the Olympic Movement. While reflecting upon the experiences of Canada’s Multiculturalism Policy, a policy for volunteerism and multiculturalism is developed for the Olympic Movement. This policy emphasizes (1) equal recognition of all volunteers, (2) equal opportunity for personal growth through the volunteer experience, (3) a chance to experience the “spirit of the Olympics”, (4) an avenue of cultural exchange and interchange amongst each other, and (5) a “common cultural environment.” It is concluded that such a policy should be implemented in an IOC main commission (i.e., Commission for Culture and Olympic Education) and/or in the Olympic Charter.

Introduction

The volunteer sector, traditionally known as the third sector of society, has rapidly grown since the 1970s (Hall and Banting, 2000; Thayer Scott, 1997). This trend has occurred in most western nations that have witnessed downsizing of public sector services, fiscal restraints of public resources, and increase in the reliance of volunteers to serve the growing needs of society. This trend has also spilled over into the commercial sector as many corporations, businesses, and enterprises have looked to reduce costs through the assistance of volunteers. Moreover, major national and international sporting events such as the Francophone Games in Canada and the Summer and Winter Olympic Games depend more on volunteers today than in the past to provide needed services to athletes, officials, spectators, and all persons involved with the games (Larocque, Gravelle and Karlis, 2002).

Regardless of the type of volunteer service or environment, volunteers are made up of different people, from different backgrounds, having many different cultures (Arai, 2002; Arai, 2000/2001; Minshall, 1984). When these people come together as volunteers to provide a common service under a “common roof” to an organization or an event such as the Olympics, they not only have to abide by standards and regulations of the host National Olympic Committee, they also have to learn to appreciate and work with each other, despite cultural differences. Indeed, Olympic volunteers are called upon to “work with so many cultures at a time and look as if they were one” (Pellico, 1999: 1). As each volunteer is accustomed to a different “way of life,” it may be difficult to have all volunteers interact in a socially cohesive fashion (Karlis, 1998). This is a challenge that the host National Olympic Committee and the Olympic Movement must be prepared to contend with.

In November 1999, under the auspices of the Olympic Museum and the International Chair on Olympism, a conference was held on “Volunteers, Global Society and the Olympic Movement” in Lausanne. This conference attracted roughly 100 experts representing non-government organizations, national and international associations for volunteers, National Olympic Committees, Olympic Games Organizing Committees, National and International Sports Federations, volunteer leaders, and researchers. This conference concluded by emphasizing that the contribution of volunteers to the Olympics are plentiful and extend beyond providing services to enhancing the social and cultural dimension of the games.

At a subsequent conference, the World Conference on Olympic and Sport Tourism held in New York in November 2001, Jacques Rogge proposed that the National Olympic Committees set up volunteer corps. Rogge argued that a need for specialized volunteers exists. He went on to further state that, “one must draw from culture, local traditions, and the experience acquired by volunteers, to build up volunteerism” (Rogge, 2001-2002: 1). Moreover, the New York Declaration was put forth at this conference, recognizing that volunteerism is the foundation of the Olympic Movement; that is, a need exists within the Olympic Movement to promote, develop, and consolidate the culture of volunteerism.

Despite the fact that the results of both of these conferences highlighted “culture” as an important dimension on volunteerism, a policy on volunteerism and multiculturalism does not exist anywhere in the Olympic Movement. Although emphasis is continuously placed on “culture,” “cultural awareness,” and “cultural transmission” by the National Organizing Committees of the host countries, a policy within the Olympic Movement and Olympic Charter does not exist to guide in preparing volunteers to serve the multicultural fabric of the Olympic Games. Moreover, a commission with a primary mandate on volunteers does not exist amongst the International Olympic Commissions.

For many, Canada, a nation with a Multicultural Policy, is regarded as a classic example as to how a diversity of people can live and work together in an efficient and effective manner (Karlis and Katakoullis, 1992). The implementation of a Multicultural Policy in Canada in 1988 endorsed “equal recognition” and “equal opportunity” for all Canadians (Secretary of State of Canada, 1987). More specifically, Multiculturalism Policy in Canada is used as an administrative tool by the Government of Canada to enhance social cohesiveness between and amongst Canadians of ethnic descent while also establishing a “Canadian identity” for this young society.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the linkage between volunteerism and multiculturalism for the Olympic Movement. This paper addresses the call for increased research in the area of volunteerism at the Olympics as concluded in the Lausanne Conference in 1999 and the New York Conference in 2001. Thus, this paper purports to make a case for the implementation of volunteerism and multiculturalism into the mandate of the Olympic Movement while making reference to Canada’s Multiculturalism Policy. To fulfill the purpose of this paper, the main body is divided into five parts: (1) volunteerism and the Olympic Games, (2) the Olympic Movement, (3) volunteerism, multiculturalism and the Olympic Movement: current state of condition, (4) Multiculturalism in Canadian Society, and (5) volunteerism and multiculturalism: a linkage for the future.

Volunteerism and the Olympic Games

Although it may be argued that volunteerism at the Olympic Games has a rich history with many athletes, officials, and organizers volunteering time and efforts, the concept of “Olympic volunteer” is fairly young. It was not until the Olympic glossary of the Official Report of the Barcelona Games that the concept Olympic volunteer was first defined. This definition states that the Olympic volunteer is “a person who makes an individual, altruistic commitment to collaborate, to the best of his/her abilities in the organization of the Olympic Games, carrying out the tasks assigned to him/her without receiving payments or rewards of any other nature” (Memoria Oficial de los Juegos Olimpicos de Barcelona, 1992: 381).

Historically, this concept of Olympic volunteer largely evolved out of the role of the Organizing Committee of the Lake Placid Games in 1980. It was during these games that a volunteer program was created with a focus on preparing and training the some 6,000 volunteers (Moreno, 1999). Indeed, since 1980 there has been a greater reliance on volunteers for the staging of the Olympic Games leading to an increased number of volunteers and an enhanced focus on the training of volunteers by the Organizing Committees of the host nations. Table 1 presents the evolution of the numbers of volunteers at the summer and winter games.

Table 1
The Evolution of the Number of Volunteers
at the Summer and Winter Olympic Games

Summer Games		Winter Games
Los Angeles 1984	28,742	Lake Placid 1980	6,703
Seoul 1988	27,221	Sarajevo 1984	10,450
Barcelona 1992	34,548	Calgary 1988	9,498
Atlanta 1996	60,422	Albertville 1992	not available
Sydney 2000	47,000	Lillehammer 1994	9,054
Athens 2004	*60,000	Nagano 1998	32,579
		Salt Lake City	19,000
*Estimate for both Olympics and Paralympics

Without doubt, volunteerism is an important part of the Olympic Games. In fact, “volunteers constitute the force that lies behind the Olympic ideal” (Fok, 1999: 2). Volunteers are needed to not only operate services but to also assist in many capacities (i.e., medical, management and technical area, sport event technical staff, international relations and language areas, and operative and general services) for implementing the games (Lanzoni and Lykogianni, 1999). In Athens in 2004, there will be four periods in which volunteers will offer their services: (1) during “test events” used to test facilities and all operations before the games (2003-2004), (2) during the preparation of the Olympic and the Paralympic Games (May 2004-August 2004), (3) during the Olympic Games (13-29 August 2004), and (4) during the Paralympic Games (17-28 September 2004) (www.athens2004.com).

It is through the efforts of volunteers that these games not only operate, but also continue to exist. This is best depicted in a quote extracted from the Athens 2004 official website stating the following: “The greatest celebration of humanity is only possible through the will, the passion, the dedication and the professionalism of each volunteer: (www.athens2004.com).

It is estimated that Athens 2004 will train 45,000 volunteers for the Olympics and 15,000 for the Paralympics. In 2000, the Sydney Olympic Games utilized 47,000 whereas, in Atlanta, the 1996 Olympic Games relied on the efforts of 60,422 volunteers. This high number of volunteers not only requires the appropriate management and guidance, but also a sound training to carry out necessary tasks.

Those who offer their volunteer services at the Olympics have a time-commitment to the event from start to finish, meaning roughly 14 days. In addition, this commitment extends beyond the time of the games to preparation and training prior to the games and, for some, wrap-up work after the games are done. Indeed, “training” is probably the most important aspect of preparing to volunteer at the Olympics.

For Athens 2004, a potential volunteer goes through the following steps in preparing to volunteer at the games: (1) personal interview, (2) training, and (3) participation. In past Olympics Games, the training process has varied slightly from Organizing Committee to Organizing Committee depending on the needs of the host nation and the specific games. During the Sarajevo Games the general training program passed on knowledge about the region’s geography, and social and political history, with special emphasis on the principles of socialism; whereas, at the Calgary Olympics, a systematic plan for specific training for each of the locations of the games existed (Moreno, 1999). Nonetheless, for the most part, the training of volunteers during past games has consisted of sessions focused on Olympic history, hosting techniques, customer services, international relations, cultural awareness, and people skills (see Merinda Techmeyer, Salt Lake 2002). Thus, three basic courses tend to be implemented in training volunteers: (1) a culture course, (2) a tasks and function course, and (3) a practical hands-on course (Moreno, 1999). This will more than likely be the case for the Athens Games as well.

Individuals who will volunteer during Athens 2004 will complete a training program related to their specific role. This training program will also consist of the following: (1) the dissemination of information on the history of the ancient and modern Olympics, (2) information about the different sport activities, (3) explanations of the routines of the games, and (4) awareness of information to be given to athletes, officials, and visitors to the games (www.athens2004.com).

In preparation for volunteer work at the Salt Lake City Olympic Games, Olympic volunteer Britannie Hanson had to attend five training sessions. The first of these was a general orientation session in a packed high school auditorium. During this first session, the uniforms were featured, including the agenda for the next few months, while door prizes were drawn (microwaves and vacuums). The second session was more specific, with smaller groups (25-35 people). Topics covered included everything from venue locations, hospitality, and international customs (i.e., such as volunteers should never point a finger in giving directions, as it is rude in some cultures) (see Foy, 2001). The final three sessions included one general class and two sessions devoted to learning individual roles in job-specific and venue-specific training.

As a reward or incentive for volunteer efforts, volunteers receive a number of perks. For example, during the Sydney Olympics in 2000, volunteers were provided with a free uniform and received free meals and refreshments while working. In addition free transportation on the Olympic network was provided to volunteers while working and they also received complimentary tickets to an event during the games.

Finally, research by Moreno (1999) lists three reasons why volunteerism is an important part of the Olympic Movement of today and the future. These three reasons are the political, economic, and cultural. From a political perspective, volunteerism represents the coming together of individuals to work on a particular project, thus leading to the expression of public momentum. The economic perspective is addressed through the reduction in salary costs and expenses. Whereas, the cultural viewpoint is one of enhanced knowledge on solidarity and multiculturalism; that is, an appreciation and value for all cultures.

The Olympic Movement

The Olympic Movement commenced with the re-establishment of the Olympic Games by Pierre de Coubertin. Since the first modern-day games held in 1896 in Athens, the Olympic Movement has continued to grow. Indeed, the Olympic Movement is shaped by Olympism; that is, a state of mind based on equality of sports which are international and democratic. Indeed, it is the goal of the Olympic Movement to assist in building a better world by educating youth through sport practiced without discrimination of any kind. The intent of the Olympic Movement is to build a spirit of friendship, solidarity and fair play (www.olympic.org).

The Olympic Movement is made up of a wide array of organizations, athletes, and other persons who agree to abide by the specifics of the Olympic Charter while also recognizing the International Olympic Committee as supreme authority of the Olympic Movement. The Olympic Charter is a document consisting of five chapters (102 pages) outlining the fundamental principles of the Olympic Movement. The titles of each chapter are as follows: Chapter 1 – The Olympic Movement; Chapter 2 – The International Olympic Committee; Chapter 3 – The International Federations; Chapter 4 – The National Olympic Committees; and Chapter 5 – The Olympic Games. Thus, the Olympic Movement brings together individuals and organizations that agree to be guided by the Olympic Charter and acknowledge the authority of the International Olympic Commission (IOC). The individuals and associations include the International Federations, the National Olympic Committees, judges, referees, and athletes.

The operation of the Olympic Games is a difficult process. To aid in successfully implementing these games, the International Olympic Commission has established 18 main commissions with each consisting of experts in their specific domain. The intent of these commissions is to address areas of concern deemed necessary by the IOC for not only the implementation of the games, but also the sustainability of the Olympic Movement. The Olympic Movement extends beyond sport, to the promotion of the ideals of the Olympics through cultural and educational programs. In addition, the Olympic Movement is also concerned with: (1) humanitarian aid efforts, (2) environmental efforts, and (3) enhancing the status of women in sport.

The 18 main commissions of the IOC are: (1) Athletes’ Commission, (2) Commission for Culture and Olympic Education, (3) Coordination Commission for the Olympic Games, (4) Ethics Commission, (5) Evaluation Commission for the XXI Olympic Games in 2010, (6) IOC 2000 Reform Follow-Up Commission, (7) Marketing Commission, (8) Medical Commission, (9) Olympic Games Study Commission, (10) Olympic Philately, Numismatic and Memorabilia Commission, (11) Olympic Programme Commission, (12) Olympic Solidarity, (13) Press Commission, (14) Radio and Television Commission, (15) Sport and Environment Commission, (16) Sport For All Commission, (17) TV and Internet Rights Commission, and, (18) Women and Sport Working Groups.

Volunteerism, Multiculturalism and the Olympic Movement: Current State of Condition

A review of pertinent information made available by the Olympic Movement, the Olympic Charter, and the main commissions of the International Olympic Commission reveal that the issue of volunteerism and multiculturalism has not been highlighted. Despite this omission, the IOCs 1st Vice-President, Richard Pound, has stated that the “Olympic Movement is a social phenomenon based, fundamentally, on the activities of volunteers” (1999:1). Yet, the relationship between volunteerism and multiculturalism appears to receive only scant attention in the formal documents of the Olympic Movement. Moreover, a policy on volunteerism and multiculturalism does not appear to exist anywhere within the documentations of the Olympic Movement.

In fact, the issue of volunteerism is not identified through a sub-heading in any of the five chapters of the Olympic Charter. Furthermore, none of the 18 main commissions of the IOC focuses primarily on volunteerism whereas, only one of these commissions, the Commission for Culture and Olympic Education, addresses the issue of cultural diversity.

Does this mean that volunteerism and multiculturalism are not important concerns of the Olympic Movement? Absolutely not! Volunteerism has traditionally been the responsibility of the National Olympic Committee of the host country, whereas multiculturalism issues have also been addressed by these same committees, and by the Commission for Culture and Olympic Education. Thus, for the most part “volunteers” and “multiculturalism” have been addressed distinctively rather than collectively by the Olympic Movement.

For example, for Athens 2004, the National Olympic Committee of Greece, the issue of volunteerism is addressed by two specific branches in the organizational structure: (1) volunteer recruitment, and (2) volunteer training. For each of these branches there is a manager who reports directly to the General Manager of the Volunteers Division.

Although the mandate of the Commission for Culture and Olympic Education does not directly put forth a multicultural policy, it does focus on culture and its relationship to sport. The intent of the Commission for Culture and Olympic Education is to: (1) develop a linkage between sport and culture, (2) encourage cultural exchange, and (3) promote the diversity of cultures. The intent of this commission is fulfilled through the: (1) organization of international competitions and forums, (2) organization of special events, and (3) development of educational programs (www.olympic.org).

Multiculturalism in Canadian Society

Canada is a multicultural society. Approximately one-third of the Canadian population is comprised of immigrants or immediate descendents (Statistics Canada, 1991). In recognition of the cultural mosaic of its population, the government of Canada, in 1988, passed into law, the Canadian Multiculturalism Act. This act addresses the value Canada places on diversity while highlighting the importance of all individuals in the contribution of a Canadian identity.

As a result of this act, a Multiculturalism Policy has been established. Some of the main objectives of this Multiculturalism Policy are: (1) to recognize the cultural diversity of Canada; that Canadians are free to preserve and share their cultural heritage, and affirm that multiculturalism is a fundamental characteristic of Canadian identity, (2) to confirm that questions of ethnic origin and background should not limit anyone’s chance to help shape and build Canadian society, (3) to recognize Canada’s culturally diverse communities and their contribution to Canadian society, (4) to promote equality for all and create the social conditions that would further the goal of equality, (5) to recognize that the social and cultural life of this country is strengthened by bringing together Canadians of different backgrounds, and (6) to recognize that the expressions of our multicultural heritage contributes to the richness of our cultural expression.

Moreover, some of the pertinent policy commitments of Canada’s Multiculturalism Policy are: (1) ensuring that Canadians of all origins have an equal opportunity to obtain employment and advancements in those institutions, (2) promoting policies, programs and practices that enhance the ability of individuals and communities of all origins to contribute to the continuing evolution of Canada, (3) promoting policies, programs and practices that enhance the understanding of and respect for the diversity of the members of Canadian society, (4) making use, as appropriate, of language skills and cultural understanding of individuals of all origins, and (5) carrying on activities in a manner that is sensitive and responsive to the multicultural reality of Canada.

Multiculturalism and Volunteerism: A Linkage for Future Olympics

Most Olympic volunteers tend to come from the host nation (Nakajima, 1999). An important attribute that must be possessed by volunteers is patriotism; that is, helping to promote the city and country of the host nation (Ronningen, 1999). Volunteers must have a sense of national pride, promote the Olympic spirit, and value cooperation (Kikou, 2001). Moreover, for Bontempi (2001), the ideal Olympic volunteer is able to work with all people from all cultural and social backgrounds.

To train one to be an ideal Olympic volunteer is a difficult task. Traditionally, the training of the volunteer has fallen under the auspices of the National Olympic Committee of the host nation. Focus has thus been placed on educating the volunteer on the ideals of the Olympics and training for the necessary skills and tasks of the specific volunteer position. As a result, the nature by which the volunteer has been trained has been case-specific, as no policy has existed within the Olympic Movement for the training of volunteers. Perhaps a policy for the training of volunteers is not required as each National Olympic Committee best recognizes its needs and required tasks for the implementation of the games. However, it may be that a policy on volunteerism and multiculturalism may help to pass on a “collective cultural” orientation to volunteers and those training volunteers.

As Canada’s Multiculturalism Policy is globally renowned as being one of the best of its kind, perhaps the Olympic Movement may benefit by adapting parts of this policy. To start, a recognition of the diverse and pluralistic nature of volunteers needs to be addressed while also highlighting how multiculturalism can contribute to an “Olympic identity.” Moreover, a policy on volunteerism and multiculturalism would help establish a collective understanding of the cultural importance of volunteerism. The essence of such a policy should emphasize the following:

1. equal recognition of all volunteers
2. equal opportunity for personal growth through the volunteer experience
3. a chance to experience the “spirit of the Olympics”
4. an avenue of cultural exchange and interchange amongst each other
5. a “common cultural environment”

A policy addressing the aforementioned would assist nations such as Greece. The National Olympic Committee of Athens 2004 has been active in recruiting potential volunteers from the diaspora; in particular, Canadians, Australians, and Americans of Greek descent. As Greece is the smallest nation to ever host the Olympics, the need to go outside of Greece for volunteer recruitment has been great. It is thus possible that, unlike in past Olympics, a large number of volunteers will come from countries other than host Greece.

But which sector of the Olympic Movement should be responsible for implementing a policy on volunteerism and multiculturalism. Should it be the National Olympic Committees or the Commission on Culture and Olympic Education? Should a new commission be established with an emphasis on volunteerism and multiculturalism? Or, should a policy on volunteerism and multiculturalism be integrated into the Olympic Charter?

The National Olympic Committees are responsible for the training of volunteers and thus would benefit from a policy on volunteerism and multiculturalism. However, to ascertain that this policy is implemented at all Olympic Games, it would be wise to implement such a policy in a central governing body such as the Commission of Culture and Olympic Education. Furthermore, if deemed to be important, the Olympic Movement may consider establishing a specific commission on volunteerism and multiculturalism. This would, without doubt, help to further address the growing trend of Olympic volunteers. In addition, the implementation of a policy on volunteerism and multiculturalism in the Olympic Charter would go one step further to provide a solid base for volunteerism to the Olympic Movement.

Conclusion

Since the 1980s, volunteerism has become a growing trend for not only the operation of the Olympic Games, but also for the successful implementation of these games. In fact, the “volunteers” have become one of the most important resources for not only putting together these games, but also for carrying out the day-to-day functions of the games.

The Olympic Movement has only recently begun to recognize the importance of volunteers. Two recent conferences in 1999 and 2001 have both called for more research into the area of volunteerism and multiculturalism. This paper has attempted to contribute to this call for research by establishing a linkage between volunteerism and multiculturalism for policy considerations by the Olympic Movement.

Through an overview of Canada’s Multicultural Policy, suggestions are made for the drafting of a similar policy for the Olympic Movement. It is concluded that a policy for volunteerism and multiculturalism would provide all volunteers: (1) equal recognition, (2) equal opportunity for personal growth through the volunteer experience, (3) a chance to experience the “spirit of the Olympics,” (4) an avenue of cultural exchange and interchange amongst each other, and (5) a “common cultural environment.” As the future of the Olympic Movement largely rests on the efforts of volunteers, a policy for volunteerism and multiculturalism would go a long way in helping to enhance the “voluntary movement of the Olympics.” Such a policy should be implemented in a main Commission of the IOC (i.e., the Commission for Culture and Olympic Education) and/or the Olympic Charter.

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